From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Music is an art form in which the medium is sound organized in time. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The word derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses".[1]
Definition of music
- See also: Music genre
Greek philosophers and ancient Indians
defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically
as harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and
"it is music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often
ordered and pleasant to listen to, but the opinion of the listener does
not necessarily help music theorists
formulate a precise definition of music. Like the notion that visual
arts must be beautiful to behold, the tacit notion that music need be
pleasant to listen to has been questioned.
20th-century composer John Cage was explicit that any sound can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound."[2] According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez,
"the border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which
implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always
pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.… By
all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be, except that it is 'sound through time'."[3]
The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music
vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from
strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance),
through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres,
although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are
often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and
occasionally controversial. Within "the arts", music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art, and auditory art.
History
-
The development of music among humans must have taken place against the backdrop of natural sounds such as birdsong and the sounds other animals use to communicate.[citation needed] Prehistoric music is the name which is given to all music produced in preliterate cultures.[citation needed][4]
Ancient
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Main article: Ancient music
A range of paleolithic sites have yielded bones in which lateral holes have been pierced: these are usually identified as flutes,[5] blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi. The earliest written records of musical expression are to be found in the Samaveda of India and in 4,000 year old cuneiform from Ur.[citation needed] Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites.[6] India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. The traditional art or court music of China has a history stretching for more than three thousand years. Music was an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece:
mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and
spiritual ceremonies; musicians and singers had a prominent role in ancient Greek theater
In the 9th century, al-Farabi wrote a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of musical instruments and devised the Arab tone system of pitch organisation, which is still used in Arabic music.[7]
Medieval and Renaissance Europe
-
While musical life in Europe was undoubtedly rich in the early Medieval
era, as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about
music, and other records, the only European repertory which has
survived from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Several schools of liturgical polyphony flourished beginning in the 12th century. Alongside these traditions of sacred music, a vibrant tradition of secular song developed, exemplified by the music of the troubadours, trouvères and Minnesänger.
Much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred musical compositions such as the mass, the motet, and the laude, and secular forms such as the chanson and the madrigal. The introduction of commercial printing had an immense influence on the dissemination of musical styles.[citation needed]
European Baroque
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Main article: Baroque music
The first operas, written around 1600 and the rise of contrapuntal music define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque era that lasted until roughly 1750, the year of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach.
German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord.
During the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that
lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further,
including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.[8]
European Classical
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The music of the Classical period is characterized by homophonic texture, often featuring a prominent melody with accompaniment. These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental
music was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially
defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the
addition of the new form, the symphony. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, well known even today, are among the central figures of the Classical period.
Romantic
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Main article: Romantic music
Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert
were transitional composers, leading into the Romantic period, with
their expansion of existing genres, forms, and functions of music. In
the Romantic period, the emotional and expressive qualities of music
came to take precedence over the orientation towards technique and
tradition. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size
of the orchestra, and in the role of concerts as part of urban
society. Later Romantic composers created complex and often much longer
musical works, merging and expanding traditional forms that had
previously been used separately. For example, counterpoint, combined
with harmonic structures to create more extended chords with increased use of dissonance and to create dramatic tension and resolution.
20th century
-
In the 20th century there was a vast increase in music listening as the radio
gained popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were
developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. The focus
of art music was characterized by exploration. Claude Debussy has become well-known and respected for his orientation towards colors and depictions in his compositional style. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th century art music. Jazz
evolved and became a significant genre of music over the course of the
20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music and hip hop music did the same.
Performance
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Main article: Performance
Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical
work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are
satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, it can
evolve and change.
A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a musical idea created on the spot (such as a guitar solo or a drum solo), with no prior premeditation, while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion. Musicians will generally add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance.
Many cultures include strong traditions of solo and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali,
include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a
mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing
for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals
such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, music festivals or music competitions.
Chamber music,
which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of
instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. A
performer may be referred to as a musician.
Aural tradition
Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally,
or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known,
this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical
traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make
changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those
which demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's
history may also be passed by ear through song.
Ornamentation
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The detail included explicitly in the music notation
varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music
notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to
have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles.
For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo
performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However,
it was expected that performers would know how to add
stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills
and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give
a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively,
without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was
expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses
(among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In
the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and
used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how
they should play or sing the piece.
In popular music
and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic
framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians
and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles
associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.
Production
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Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment
product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform
music for their own pleasure, and they do not derive their income from
music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions
and organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues,
symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.
There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons
with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur
musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles
and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional
level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional
performance settings.
A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit
of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being
recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the
broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live
performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or
broadcast).
Composition
-
"Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of
music via a medium by which others can interpret it (i.e. paper or
sound). Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving
musical material, or composition, as held in western classical music.
Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions
that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how
to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is
termed interpretation.
Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary
widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music are
interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others or
folk music. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a
given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice,
where as interpretation is generally used to mean either individual
choices of a performer, or an aspect of music which is not clear, and
therefore has a "standard" interpretation.
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is
given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic,
harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the
performer in a style of performing called free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana Costescu,[citation needed] improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen material. Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.
Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may
create musical sounds; examples of this range from wind chimes, through
computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements
selected by chance is called Aleatoric music, and is associated with such composers as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.
Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a
piece of music. Methods of composition vary widely from one composer to
another, however in analysing music all forms — spontaneous, trained,
or untrained — are built from elements comprising a musical piece.
Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised:
composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memor
Classical
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